| 文章名 | Toward language equality: four democracies compared |
| 作者 | Kenneth D. McRae |
| 摘要 | This article offers a broad comparative overview of four countries that recognize two or more legally equal official languages. Beginning with the historical foundations for language pluralism, it compares selected social structural dimensions: the size, stability, and geographical distribution of language groups; the interface of language divisions with other social cleavages; and foreign influences on domestic language situations. The article discusses intergroup attitudinal studies and emphasizes intergroup sympathy levels as a factor in language planning. A core section then examines constitutional guarantees and ordinary laws on language usage or language rights, including both substantive provisions and the loci of decision-making in each country. A final section touches briefly on how these countries deal with resource allocation among language groups. |
| 文章名 | Making use of bilingualism — construction of a monolingual classroom, and its consequences |
| 作者 | Anna Slotte-Lüttge |
| 摘要 | The percentage of pupils fluent in both Swedish and Finnish in Swedish-speaking schools in Finland has grown and now includes a third of all pupils. This article focuses on the linguistic classroom discourse in a Swedish-speaking school in a strongly Finnish-dominated area. The purpose is to increase the understanding of how linguistic norms are maintained, and what these norms imply for the participation of bilingual pupils in classroom interaction. Videotaped lessons were analyzed by means of conversation analysis focusing on the interaction between the teacher and the bilingual pupils as well as on language-related sequences. The results show that the bilingual pupils cannot be regarded as victims of a language policy governed from above, but that they actively contribute to the construction and maintenance of a monolingual norm in the classroom. When using Finnish, they at the same time point at the “other-languageness” of the code-switched words. Monolingualism as a norm means a limitation restraining the pupils with gaps in their Swedish from participating with full competence in the classroom conversation. Between pupils, occasional Finnish words are used in an unproblematic manner. Code-switching in these cases works as a means to keep one's position on the conversational floor. By violating the monolingual norm, pupils can lodge a protest against the agenda of the teacher. |
| 文章名 | Language attitudes among minority youth in Finland and Germany |
| 作者 | Marianne Broermann |
| 摘要 | The main findings from a contact-linguistic case study from 2003 on language attitudes among 16–18-year-old Swedish-speaking Finns (Finland) and Sorbs (Germany) are presented. The former can be regarded as a (in many respects) privileged minority, if a minority at all, while the latter is often classified as a threatened minority. Due to the highly different sociohistorical contexts, many differences between the groups were expected, but also similarities existed. The study is based on a language attitude model in which the minority language is embedded in its specific sociohistorical context. In order to make a comparison feasible, the sociohistorical context is described, using the socioprofile method (literature review, interviews with privileged witnesses, survey, analysis, conclusions/recommendations). The clearest differences between the two groups can be found in the language proficiency and language use in official domains. However, the similarities are more numerous than the differences: the frequent minority language use in private and semi-official domains, majority language preference in official domains, and the importance of the majority language and English in youth culture domains. Further similarities include a strong affinity with and an integrative, but also instrumental, orientation toward the minority language and extremely low affinities with the languages in the neighboring countries. |
| 文章名 | Evidence of language loss in progress? Mother-tongue proficiency among students in Finland and Sweden |
| 作者 | Therese Leinonen Marika Tandefelt |
| 摘要 | In this article we present some results from a study of Swedish language proficiency among young Swedish-speaking Finns and Swedes. The aim of the study was to find potential signs of language loss in the Swedish-speaking community in Finland. The participants were first-year university students representing four educational programs. We measured language proficiency using two different tests: an idiomatics test and a cloze test. In both tests the Swedish-speaking Finnish students showed poorer results than the students from Sweden. The results in the idiomatics test for the students from Finland were dependent on the variables language use, bilingualism, and geographical region. These variables show that a more extensive use of Swedish and more opportunities to use the language lead to a better mastery of idiomatic language. Some Swedish-speaking Finns living in areas dominated by Finnish do not automatically get these opportunities to develop their language skills in Swedish. Our conclusion is that there are signs of language loss within the Finland-Swedish minority group. |
| 文章名 | Discussing assimilation and language shift among the Chinese in Thailand |
| 作者 | Liang Morita |
| 摘要 | Since the 1950s, the relationship between the Chinese in Thailand and their host society was characterized as that of assimilation. The main proponent of this view was William Skinner, and it was subsequently adopted by researchers in the field. However, the thesis of assimilation has been challenged by writers such as Chan Kwok Bun and Tong Chee Kiong, and many would agree that Skinner's thesis no longer prevails. While it is now almost certain that the presumption of assimilation is misguided, language shift has nonetheless taken place. In the present article, the author evaluates the analysis of the factors which an earlier work claims to have contributed to assimilation and language shift (namely the decline of Chinese education, pro-Thai policies, and positive attitudes towards Thai society). In addition, she presents the arguments which have been used to discredit the thesis of assimilation. Finally, taking into account the views of other writers on the subject, she analyzes data from her fieldwork and shows that language shift has occurred |
| 文章名 | Principles of Thai place-name formation: a reflection of natural and cultural heritage |
| 作者 | Amara Prasithrathsint |
| 摘要 | Based on 1,366 names of districts, subdistricts, villages, and temples in Nan Province, Northern Thailand, this study aims to analyze the meaning of each of the names and formulate general principles of place-name formation in Thai. It is found that folk names are structurally different from official names. A Thai folk place name, such as (farm-salt) ‘salt farm’ and thûŋ-kwaaŋ (field-deer) ‘field full of deer’, is generally composed of a head noun denoting a geographical feature, such as mountain, farm, forest, plain, and field, followed by a modifying word that refers to natural resources, such as salt, rock, teak, sand, animals, and plants, a word that refers to colors, such as ‘yellow’ and ‘white’, or a word referring to directions, such as ‘south’ and ‘north’. Unlike folk names, which reflect natural environments, official place names reflect Thai social values. They normally contain elaborate words borrowed from Pali and Sanskrit that refer to auspicious concepts, such as peace, happiness, development, modernity, and Buddhism; for example, săntiphâap-phátthanaa ‘peace and development’. |
| 文章名 | Endangered languages of Thailand |
| 作者 | Suwilai Premsrirat |
| 摘要 | Thailand is situated at the heart of Southeast Asia and as such, exhibits all the remarkable characteristics of the region, which is one the most complex areas of language and ethnicity in the world. The 70 languages of Thailand belong to five language families: Tai, Austroasiatic, Hmong-Mien, Sino-Tibetan, and Austronesian. All languages are hierarchically interrelated in Thai society with Standard Thai, the only official language, at the highest level. It is used as a medium of instruction in school and in the mass media all over the country. The ethnic minorities are in diglossic situations. They use their ethnic language at home and in their community and Standard Thai at school and on formal occasions. |
| 文章名 | Does the number of speakers of a language determine its fate? |
| 作者 | Andoni Barreña, Esti Amorrortu, Ane Ortega, Belen Uranga, Esti Izagirre, Itziar Idiazabal |
| 摘要 | Given the forthcoming near certain massive disappearance of languages during the twenty-first century, scholars have tried to identify the causes that are leading this process. Among those given, the number of speakers has been considered one of the most important predictors for the future of a language, and different “safety thresholds” have been proposed. However, examination of several sociolinguistic aspects in a fairly large sample of languages worldwide suggests that there is no direct relationship between the number of speakers and the probabilities of survival of a language. In this article, we will show that the number of speakers cannot be considered the only, not even the most important criterion, when trying to anticipate language survival or death. Instead, natural transmission and intergenerational use are shown to be better predictors. We will use data on more than 525 languages, collected by the Amarauna Languages group of the UNESCO Center in the Basque Country, with the purpose of writing a report on the current sociolinguistic situation of the world languages (Martí et al. 2005). |
| 文章名 | From “Nouvelle-France” to “Francophonie canadienne”: a historical survey |
| 作者 | Gratien Allaire |
| 摘要 | From the time when France settled New France in the seventeenth century to the present, the French-speaking population went from a majority in a French colony to a minority in an English-speaking country. It was at first located in three areas: Canada, Acadia, and Louisiana. It expanded from the St. Lawrence Valley and the province of Quebec to New England and in many areas of the other provinces of Canada. They brought with them their language, their culture, their institutions and, to a very large extent, their way of life. For a long time, language and religion were the main characteristics of French Canada and Acadia. Change and the welfare state affected them very profoundly in the 1960s and after. The federal government took a series of positive measures, including the Official Languages Act and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and contributed to the survival and development of francophone communities. While Quebec asserted its difference, developed an independence movement, and paradoxically played a central role in the recent evolution of Canada, French Canada became la francophonie canadienne, comprised of Acadie and provincial minority communities, with the recent return of Quebec. |
| 文章名 | Legal environment of official languages in Canada |
| 作者 | Pierre Foucher |
| 摘要 | Language rights are an important part of the socio-legal environment in Canada. This article examines the constitutional division of legislative powers over language in Canada and its consequence on language rights. It also looks into constitutional language rights to ascertain how these rights shape the future of linguistic communities in Canada. The article shows that constitutionally protected language rights foster the constitutional dialogue theory and helps to advance the status and power of French and English minorities in a delicate balance between courts and legislatures, federal and provincial jurisdictions, and English minorities in Quebec and French minorities outside Quebec. |
| 文章名 | Language politics and horizontal governance |
| 作者 | Linda Cardinal |
| 摘要 | This article discusses Canada's governance of official language minorities since the 1990s. More specifically, it examines the growing participation of official language minority groups in the governance of policy initiatives in sectors such as community development, culture, and economic development. It argues that horizontal governance is transforming our understanding of language planning, but also that official language minorities believe they need to maintain political pressure on the Canadian government for more positive measures towards their empowerment. In other words, horizontal governance is no substitute for language politics. Firstly, the article reviews recent debates on the politics and governance of identity-based policies such as language policies. Secondly, it provides information on Canada's official language policy and on the context which led to development of a new governance of official language minorities. Thirdly, it discusses results from a series of studies which help understand the resistance of official language minorities towards horizontal governance. In conclusion, the article argues for more research on the impact of horizontal governance on language planning. |
| 文章名 | Bilingual schooling of the Canadian Francophone minority: a cultural autonomy model |
| 作者 | Rodrigue Landry, Réal Allard, Kenneth Deveau |
| 摘要 | The article gives an overview of the sociopolitical context that led to the provision of educational rights to Francophone minorities outside Quebec. It also presents a conceptual framework that distinguishes between French immersion, a bilingual program intended to promote additive bilingualism for majority group members, and French schooling, an approach developed to foster additive bilingualism for minority group members. French schooling is described as a cornerstone to cultural autonomy, a process that leads to cultural survival and ethnolinguistic vitality. The concept of cultural autonomy is defined as well as each of its components: social proximity, institutional completeness, and ideological legitimacy. Finally, the article discusses the challenges of the Canadian Francophone minorities in their quest for cultural autonomy. This cultural autonomy model of minority education is seen as unique and as an approach to minority education that could be applied to other linguistic minorities. |
| 文章名 | Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997 |
| 作者 | Richard Y. Bourhis, Elisa Montaruli, Catherine E. Amiot |
| 摘要 | This article reviews key elements of the model of multilingual communication (MMC) (Sachdev and Bourhis 2001, 2005) as they pertain to the case of the “two solitudes” in the province of Quebec: the Francophone majority and the Anglophone minority. The first part of the article provides an intergroup analysis of how language laws in Quebec succeeded in changing the respective ethnolinguistic vitality of the Francophone majority and the Anglophone minority in the province. Along with the MMC, communication accommodation theory is used to review the intergroup, normative, and social psychological determinants of bilingual switching behaviors, as well as specific social psychological studies of bilingual communication conducted in Quebec. The second part of the article describes empirical field studies of language accommodation in Montreal conducted in 1977, 1979, and 1991 (Bourhis 1984b; Moïse and Bourhis 1994). As a follow-up to our earlier studies, the goal of the 1997 experiment (N = 482) was to monitor the language strategies adopted by pedestrians who were randomly accosted by a white or black female confederate who voiced a plea for directions in either English or French. Results of the 1997 study showed that both Francophone and Anglophone pedestrians overwhelmingly converged to the linguistic needs of the white and black confederate. |
| 文章名 | A macroscopic intergroup approach to the study of ethnolinguistic development |
| 作者 | Rodrigue Landry, Réal Allard, Kenneth Deveau |
| 摘要 | This article analyzes the ethnolinguistic development of linguistic minority group members using two complementary models. The first is a macroscopic model of the factors that influence the ethnolinguistic development of minorities in intergroup contexts. The model comprises three levels of factors: a) the macrosocial, comprising two sublevels (ideological, legal and political framework; institutional and social context), b) the microsocial (linguistic and cultural socialization), and c) the psychological (ethnolinguistic development). The second model analyzes specific hypotheses between the microsocial and psychological levels. This model shows precise relationships between different aspects of language and cultural socialization and important components of ethnolinguistic development (for example, linguistic competencies, group identity, subjective vitality, language motivation, language use). These models take into consideration factors that are related to social determinism and others that favor selfdetermination at the group and individual levels. The second model can be tested empirically with the use of structural equation modeling. Examples of research with Francophone minority group members in Canada are presented. It is contended that these models could be applied to other linguistic minorities. |
| 文章名 | Ethnolinguistic minorities and national integration in Canada |
| 作者 | Joseph Yvon Thériault |
| 摘要 | In the light of the other contributions to this issue, which offer various perspectives on ethnolinguistic minorities — Anglophones in Quebec and Francophones in Canada outside Quebec — this article explores the question of how the identity process unfolds in these minority groups. These processes do not reflect pure definitions of types of identity groups, such as nation, minority nationalism, or ethnic groups. They are, instead, an interlocking pattern of these different types, which produces a dynamic determined, in large part, by historic modes of national integration particular to the Canadian context. The specific dynamic, rather than leading us away from our understanding of ethnolinguistic identities, leads us towards the possibility of a better understanding of how contemporary societies are constructed by the interweaving of ethnolinguistic and ethnocultural groups, national minorities and nations. |
| 文章名 | Sociolinguistics of Spanish in Galicia |
| 作者 | Fernando Ramallo |
| 摘要 | The aim of this article is to present the major characteristics of Spanish in Galicia, where certain linguistic solutions of Spanish came into contact with Galician, the vernacular language following the fragmentation of Latin into the peninsular Romance languages. This study should be supplemented by others primarily concerned with the study of Spanish of Galicia |
| 文章名 | Sociolinguistics of Spanish in the Basque Country and Navarre |
| 作者 | Maitena Etxebarria-Arostegui |
| 摘要 | This article presents the sociolinguistic aspects of Spanish in contact with Basque in the Basque Country and Navarre. It will take a look at the historical reasons for the presence of Spanish in both territories, the relative status of the two languages, the linguistic characterization of the Spanish in these bilingual areas, or the linguistic results of the contact, the domains where Spanish is used, and so on. It will also detail the language-related legislation that governs the use of Spanish in the two communities and the teaching of Spanish both in compulsory education (primary and secondary) and university-level education. |
| 文章名 | Sociolinguistics of Spanish in Catalonia |
| 作者 | M. Rosa Vila-Pujol |
| 摘要 | The present article provides an overview of the historical and sociolinguistic factors that have lead to the current state of bilingualism in Catalonia. Since medieval times, offcial policies and successive waves of Spanish-speaking newcomers have left their mark on both the social identity and the linguistic repertoire of the Catalan speech community. At present, surveys show that, despite the legislative efforts of the past 30 years to normalize Catalan as the language of education, culture, and the public sphere in general, the use of Spanish does not appear to be decreasing; rather, overall, there are increasing numbers of bilingual speakers. This, in turn, is having an effect on the variety of Spanish spoken in Catalonia, which shows certain idiosyncratic features, ranging from lexical and grammatical interference to code-switching and code alternation. |
| 文章名 | Sociolinguistics on the Aragon-Catalonia border |
| 作者 | María Rosa Fort-Cañellas |
| 摘要 | This article delimits the area which is the object of research from both geographical and linguistic points of view. Beliefs and attitudes of the speakers in this border zone are discussed, as well as the linguistic policy on the Aragon-Catalonia border. |
| 文章名 | Linguistic borders of the Western Peninsula |
| 作者 | Ramón De Andrés-Díaz |
| 摘要 | In the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, there are a variety of borders and transitional areas between three linguistic domains: a diffuse isogloss border between Castilian Spanish and Asturian-Leonese, a compressed iso-gloss border between Asturian-Leonese and Galician-Portuguese (in its Galician variety), and a clear border between Castilian Spanish and Galician- Portuguese (in its Portuguese variety). These limits do not coincide exactly with Spanish and Portuguese political borders.The present article is an attempt to review the sociolinguistic situation of certain areas along these linguistic borders: a) Asturian-Galician, spoken in the westernmost part of Asturias, a speech form that can be described as a transitional dialect from Galician to Asturian, b) Leonese-Galician, spoken in the western part of Leon and Zamora, with characteristics similar to those of Asturian-Galician, c) Mirandese, spoken on the northeastern side of Portugal, an Asturian-Leonese speech gradually changing to Galician-Portuguese, d) Jálama speech, spoken in the western part of Cáceres, a kind of Galician-Portuguese influenced by Castilian Spanish an Asturian-Leonese language, and e) Oliventino speech from Olivenza (Badajoz) and Barranquenho speech from Barrancos (Alentejo), Portuguese speech forms influenced by Spanish. In each of these instances, a brief description of demography, glottology, linguistic awareness, legal status, schooling, publishing, mass media, institutions, associative networks, and linguistic standardization will be offered. |
| 文章名 | Language Endangerment in Nigeria: Perspectives on Akoko Languages of the Southwest |
| 作者 | Solomon O. Oyetade |
| 摘要 | This article examines the patterns of interaction between the Yoruba and Akoko languages. The following three major aspects of societal bilingualism engaged our attention: language ability, language use/choice in a number of domains, and language attitudes. Data on these issues were collected from 1,187 respondents with a multidimensional questionnaire and participant observation. Findings reveal that Akoko speakers are more proficient in Yoruba than in various Akoko languages. Similarly, there seems to be a positive correlation between age, level of education, type of employment, and ability in Yoruba. Language-use data suggest that the process of language shift has started, as language use at home and in the neighborhood domains is tilted in favor of Yoruba. As for language attitudes, a split commitment is discovered in that Yoruba is seen as a symbol of larger ethnic identity, whereas the Akoko languages are positively regarded as vital links with ancestors. The article underscores the need for collaborative efforts between communities, linguists, and government to salvage the languages from eventual death. |
| 文章名 | Lower Sorbian — twice a minority language |
| 作者 | Roland Marti |
| 摘要 | The Lower Sorbian language is in a double minority situation. Together with Upper Sorbian, it is a minority language in the context of Germany, where the majority language is German. Within the Sorbian context, it is a minority language in its relationship with Upper Sorbian. The article describes the development of Lower Sorbian in this double minority context up to the present. Special attention is paid to the intra-Sorbian minority situation, since this aspect of the Lower Sorbian language question has not yet been studied adequately due to ideological constraints. |
| 文章名 | Closely-related languages in contact: Czech, Slovak, “Czechoslovak” |
| 作者 | Mira Nábělková |
| 摘要 | This article deals with the current linguistic and communicative relations between Czech and Slovak. The decade since the division of Czechoslovakia in 1993 has introduced new and largely asymmetrical features into Czech-Slovak language contact which are extensions of previous relations and processes. The “asymmetry point of view” may produce a picture with sharp differences, whereas the corresponding social reality is a refined segmentation of the situation with a number of contradictory phenomena. Today's contact situation is characterized by the fact that after the division, both languages are frequently used among Czechs and Slovaks in a variety of communicative situations. In the contact environment, it is not unusual for a particular speaker to alternate between Czech and Slovak. The occurrence of the natural category “Czechoslovak” (“českoslovenčina”/“českoslovenština”) in spontaneous discourse may be considered a manifestation of language management oriented toward such language behavior. This article examines the way in which this category, known throughout the history of Czech-Slovak language relations, is used today. |
| 文章名 | In the grip of replacive bilingualism: the Belarusian language in contact with Russian |
| 作者 | Siarhiej Zaprudski |
| 摘要 | Belarusian occupies a very specific position among the Slavic languages. In spite of the fact that it can be characterized as a “middle-sized” Slavic language, the contiguity and all-embracing rivalry with the “strong” Russian language make it into an eternally “small” language. The modern Belarusian standard language was elaborated in the early twentieth century. There was a brief but fruitful period of its promotion in the 1920s, but then Russification became a relevant factor in its development for the following decades. Political factors have always held great significance in the development of Belarusian. The linguistic affinity of Belarusian and Russian in combination with other factors is an insurmountable obstacle for the spread of the Belarusian language. On the one hand, Russian speakers living in Belarus, as a rule, understand Belarusian but do not make the effort to acquire it as an active medium of communication. On the other hand, Belarusian speakers proficient in Russian do not have enough motivation to use Belarusian routinely, on account of the pervading presence of Russian in Belarusian society. As a result, they often lose their Belarusian language skills. There is considerable dissent as to the perspectives of Belarusian. Though it is the “titular” language, which determines its importance in Belarus, it is also a minority language and thus faces the corresponding challenges. |
| 文章名 | Ukrainian and Russian in contact: attraction and estrangement |
| 作者 | Oleksandr Taranenko |
| 摘要 | This article analyses the language situation in the Ukraine in terms of the coexistence of the Ukrainian and the Russian languages on both status and corpus levels as, correspondingly, a “small” language and a “large” one. During the eighteenth to twentieth centuries, under the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, the Ukrainian language was, to a considerable extent, forced out of usage, and its structure was influenced by the Russian language. After the Ukraine became independent in 1991, certain gradual changes in favor of the Ukrainian language have been implemented. In 1989, Ukrainian was declared “the state language” of the Ukraine. However, the Ukrainian-Russian bilingual situation in the Ukraine at the turn of the twenty-first century is still far from stable. One of the languages usually prevails in specific social areas and in specific regions of the country. Language problems are rather politicized in the modern Ukraine. The pro-Ukrainian side appeals to the interests not only of Ukrainophones, but to the whole nation with the message that the Ukrainian language and culture may disappear without state support. The pro-Russian side appeals to the civil rights of Russophones. The pro-Ukrainian side puts an accent on individual bilingualism by saying that if Ukrainophones speak Russian fluently, Russophones should have a good command of Ukrainian as well. The pro-Russian side pushes for state (national) bilingualism and for the equal legal status of Russian as the language of nearly half of the Ukraine's population |
